Unit 1: Growth and Development (2024)

Unit 1: Growth and Development

1.1Definition and meaning of growth and development

1.2Principles and factors affectingdevelopment

1.3Nature vs. Nurture

1.4Domains of development; Physical,social, emotional, cognitive, moral and language

1.5Developmental milestonesand identifying deviations and giftedness

1.1Definition and meaning of growth and development

Human development is a lifelong process ofphysical, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional growth and change. These twoterms, growth and development are used interchangeably. Both relate to themeasurement of changes occurred in an individual after conception in the wombof the mother. However, in the strict sense of terminology, these two termshave different meanings:

Growth: can be defined as an increase in size,length, height and weight or changes in quantitative aspect of anorganism/individual.

Development: is a series of orderly progress towardsmaturity. It implies overall qualitative changes resulting in the improvedfunctioning of an individual.

According to Crow and Crow (1965) development is concerned withgrowth as well as those changes in behavior which results from environmentalsituation.”

1.2Principles and factors affectingdevelopment

Fromthe scientific knowledge gathered through observation of children, some principleshave emerged. These principles enable the parents and the teachers tounderstand how children develop. What is expected of them? How to guide themand provide proper environment for their optimum development? It seemsthat the process of development is operated by some general principles. Theserules or principles may be named as the principles of development. Some ofthese principles are briefly explained below:

1.Principleof Continuity: Development is a process which begins from the moment ofconception in the womb of the mother and goes on continuing till the time ofdeath. It is a never ending process. The changes however small andgradual continue to take place in all dimensions of one’s personalitythroughout one’s life.

2.Principleof Individual differences: Every organism is a distinct creation in itself. Therefore,the development which undergoes in terms of the rate and outcome in variousdimensions is quite unique and specific. For example, all children will firstsit up, crawl and stand before they walk. But individual children will vary inregard to timing or age at which they can perform these activities.

3.Principleof lack of uniformity in the developmental rate:Though development is acontinuous process it does not exhibit steadiness and uniformity in terms ofthe rate of development in various dimensions of personality or in thedevelopmental periods and stages of life. Instead of steadiness,development usually takes place in fits and starts showing almost no change atone time and a sudden spurt at another. For example, shooting up in height andsudden change in social interest, intellectual curiosity and emotional make-up.

4.Principleof uniformity of pattern:Although there seems to be a clear lack of uniformity anddistinct individual differences with regard to the process and outcome of thevarious stages of development, yet it follows a definite pattern in one or theother dimension which is uniform and universal with respect to individuals of aspecies. For instance, the development of language follows a somewhat definitesequence quite common to all human beings.

5.Principleof proceeding from general to specific: While developing in relation to anyaspect of personality, the child first picks up or exhibits general responsesand learns to show specific and goal-directed responses afterwards. Forexample, a baby starts by waving his arms in general random movement andafterwards these general motor responses are converted into specific responseslike grasping or reaching out. Similarly when a new born baby cries, his wholebody is involved in doing so but as he develops, it is limited to the vocalcords, facial expression and eyes etc. In development of language, a baby callsall men daddy and all women mummy but as he grows and develops, he begins touse these names only for his own father and mother.

6.Principleof integration:By observing the principle of proceeding from general to specific or from thewhole to the parts, it does not mean that only the specific responses are aimedfor the ultimate consequences of one’s development. Rather, it is a sort ofintegration that is ultimately desired. It is the integration of the whole andits parts as well as the specific and general responses that enables a child todevelop satisfactorily in relation to various aspects or dimensions of hispersonality.

7.Principleof interrelation:The various aspects of one’s growth and development areinterrelated. What is achieved or not achieved in one or the otherdimension in the course of the gradual and continuous process of developmentsurely affects the development in other dimensions.Allhealthybody tends to develop a healthy mind and an emotionally stable and sociallyconscious personality.On the other hand,inadequate physicalor mental development may results in a socially or emotionally maladjustedpersonality. That is why all efforts in education are always directed towardsachieving harmonious growth and development in all aspects of one’spersonality.

8.Principleof interaction:Theprocess of development involves active interaction between the forces withinthe individual and the forces belonging to the individual. What is inherited bythe organism at the time of conception is first influenced by the stimulationsreceived in the womb of the mother and after birth, by the forces of physicaland socio-psychological environment for its development. Therefore, at anystage of growth and development, the individual’s behaviour or personalitymake-up is nothing but the end-product of the constant interaction between hisheredity endowment and environmental set-up.

9.Principleof interaction of maturation and learning:Development occurs as a result of bothmaturation and learning. Maturation refers to changes in an organism due tounfolding and ripening of abilities, characteristics, traits and potentialitiespresent at birth. Learning denotes changes the changes in behaviour due totraining and experience.

10.Principle of predictability:Development ispredictable, which means that, to a great extent, we can forecast the generalnature and behaviour of a child in one or more aspects or dimensions at anyparticular stage of its growth and development. Not only such prediction is possiblealong general lines but it is also possible to predict the range within whichthe future development of an individual child is going to fall. For example,with the knowledge of the development of the bones of a child it is possible topredict his adult structure and size.

11.Principle of cephalocaudal andproximodistal tendencies:Cephalocaudal and proximodistal tendencies are found to befollowed in maintaining the orderly sequence and direction of developments.

According to cephalocaudal tendency,development proceeds in the direction of the longitudinal axis, ie. head tofoot. For example, before it becomes able to stand, the child first gainscontrol over his head and arms and then on his legs. In terms ofproximodistal tendency, development proceeds from the near to the distant andthe parts of the body near the centre develops before the extremities. Forexample, in the beginning the child is seen to exercise control over the largefundamental muscles of the arm and the hand and only afterwards the smallermuscles of the fingers.

12.Principle of spiral versus linearadvancement.The path followed in development by the child is not straight andlinear and development at any stage never takes place with a constant or steadypace. At a particular stage of his development, after the child haddeveloped to a certain level, there is likely to be a period of rest forconsolidation of the developmental progress achieved till then. In advancingfurther, development turns back and then moves forward again in a spiral pattern.

1.3Nature vs. Nurture

The nature versus nurture debate is one of theoldest philosophical issues within psychology.

• Naturerefers to all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we are—from our physical appearance to our personality characteristics.
• Nurturerefers to all the environmental variables that impact who we are, including our early childhood experiences, how we were raised, our social relationships, and our surrounding culture.

Thenature-nurture debate is concerned with the relative contribution that bothinfluences make to human behavior.

It has long been known that certain physicalcharacteristics are biologically determined by genetic inheritance. Colorof eyes, straight or curly hair, pigmentation of the skin and certain diseases(such as Huntingdon’s chorea) are all a function of the genes we inherit.Other physical characteristics, if not determined, appear to be at leaststrongly influenced by the genetic make-up of our biological parents.

Height, weight, hair loss (in men), lifeexpectancy and vulnerability to specific illnesses (e.g. breast cancer inwomen) are positively correlated between genetically related individuals.These facts have led many to speculate as to whether psychologicalcharacteristics such as behavioral tendencies, personality attributes andmental abilities are also “wired in” before we are even born.

Those who adopt an extreme hereditaryposition are known as nativists. Their basic assumption is that thecharacteristics of the human species as a whole are a product of evolution andthat individual differences are due to each person’s unique genetic code. Ingeneral, the earlier a particular ability appears, the more likely it is to beunder the influence of genetic factors.

Characteristics and differences that are notobservable at birth, but which emerge later in life, are regarded as theproduct of maturation. That is to say we all have an inner “biological clock”which switches on (or off) types of behavior in a pre programmed way.

The classic example of the way this affectsour physical development are the bodily changes that occur in early adolescenceat puberty. However nativists also argue that maturation governs theemergence ofattachment ininfancy,language acquisitionand evencognitive developmentas a whole.

At the other end of the spectrum are theenvironmentalists – also known as empiricists. Their basic assumption isthat at birth the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that this isgradually “filled” as a result of experience (e.g.behaviorism).

From this point of view psychologicalcharacteristics and behavioral differences that emerge through infancy andchildhood are the result of learning. It is how you are brought up(nurture) that governs the psychologically significant aspects of childdevelopment and the concept of maturation applies only to the biological.

For example, when an infant forms anattachmentit is responding to the love andattention it has received, language comes from imitating the speech of othersand cognitive development depends on the degree of stimulation in theenvironment and, more broadly, on the civilization within which the child isreared.

Examples of an extreme nature positions inpsychology includeBowlby's(1969) theory of attachment, which views the bond between mother and child asbeing an innate process that ensures survival. Likewise, Chomsky (1965)proposed language is gained through the use of an innate language acquisitiondevice. Another example of nature is Freud's theory of aggression as being aninnate drive (called thanatos).

In contrastBandura's(1977) social learning theorystatesthat aggression is a learnt from the environment through observation andimitation. This is seen in his famousBobodoll experiment(Bandura, 1961).Also,Skinner (1957)believed that language is learnt fromother people via behavior shaping techniques.

To what extent is human aggression a factor ofthe Nature or Nurture theories of behaviour? Human behaviour is continuouslydebated between scientists assessing the factors that greatly influence andshape human behaviour. This essay will focus on the biological and behaviouralapproaches that explain the aggressive behaviour. The two theories in thisdebate are the Nativist (Nature/Innate) and the Empiricist (Nurture/Learned)theories. While nativists (Nature Theory) believe that our behaviour andinteractions depend upon inner established mechanisms, empiricists (NurtureTheory) link our behaviour to our experiences.

Aggression: Definition andTypes

We need first to define aggression. Bushmanand Anderson defined aggression in the Annual Review of Psychology 2002 as"any behaviour directed towards another individual that is carried outwith the proximate intent to cause harm." Anderson et al argue that peopleare more likely to react aggressively to aggressively stimulating situations.The level, severity and intensity of the aggressive response vary with hispersonal factors that determine the individual's readiness to aggress."Person factors include all the characteristics a person brings to thesituation, such as personality traits, attitudes, and genetic predispositions.'(Anderson et al, 2010).

There are two forms of aggression, hostileand instrumental. Hostile is where the aggressive behaviour is driven by angerand is a thoughtless and unplanned action and is as an end in itself, whilstinstrumental is a premeditated and proactive action, resulting in a desiredgoal.

Biological Approach of theNature Theory

Introduction

The Nature theory states that behaviours,such as aggression, are due to innate dispositions such as physiological,hormonal, neurochemicals and genetic make-up. The people who support thisargument are known as nativists. The nativists accept that all characteristicsof the human species as a whole are products of evolution, and that individualdifferences are due to a person's genetic code. Nativist theorists such as,Bowlby (1958) and Dollard et al (1939) have conducted studies that providedevidence that human behaviour is innate.

Genetic basis of Aggression

Clearly, much behaviour is innate, such as amother's attachment to her children, the bond of partnership and love. JohnBowlby (1958), a psychoanalyst, developed the evolutionary theory of attachmentwhich suggests that children from birth are "biologically pre-programmedto form attachment with others as it is a basic survival instinct" (SaulMcLeod, 2007). Bowlby believed that attachment behaviours will be automaticallyactivated by any conditions that seem a threat, such as fear, anxiety andseparation. According to this theory, babies who stay close to their mothersare more likely to survive to adulthood and have children. We can presume thatboth attachment and aggression are inherited.

Dollard (1939) assumed that behaviour iscreated by an innate human need. He was an American Psychologist and socialscientist, who formulated the frustration-aggression hypothesis. The hypothesisassumes that whenever a person is inhibited from reaching their goal, anaggressive drive is provoked which motivates behaviour that causes theindividual to injure another or the object that is causing the frustration.This basic drive is like behavioural units of ability that are switched on oroff as an appropriate challenge or task presents itself. In other words, we acton instinct. The "Fight or Flight" mechanism is an example of abehaviour that can be switched on or off as a self-defence mechanism. Theseresponses are hormone-mediated, and are therefore controlled by specificgenetic expressions.

In further support that aggressive behaviouris inherited (Nature theory) there have been several animal experiments havebeen conducted by scientists that provide evidence that aggression is innate.In 1995, researchers at Hopkins University discovered a gene that wasresponsible for excessively violent and overly aggressive sexual behaviour inmale mice. The researchers observed that once they removed a gene, the micebecame more aggressive (Nelson, 1995). Nelson and his team believed that theremoved gene helped the mice moderate their levels of aggression and once itwas removed the behaviour was difficult to control. This indicates that geneshave a significant role to play in the level of aggression. Numerous other experimentshave been carried out on animals and especially mice to prove this trait. Theyall show a direct correlation between testosterone and aggression. (Svare 1983;Monaghan and Glickman 1992). However, it is important to note that whilstresearch carried out on animals clearly provides a better understanding of theeffect of genes in aggression, caution must obviously be taken in extrapolatingthe results when trying to relate it to human behaviour. After all, human andanimal brains are different, and human behaviour is far too complex for onegene to fully explain all aggressive behaviour.

However, genes need the right environment toexpress their phenotype characteristics. For example, an individual will growto the height that is coded in the genes, given that the individual is wellnourished and healthy. Malnourishment causes stunt growth and will stop theindividual reaching the 'coded' height. The children of Guatemala have thehighest rate of malnutrition in the Western Hemisphere. Their diet lacks ofvital nutrients during the critical period of development from two years old,and as a result, all the children are at least six or eight inches shorter thatthey should be. (Gowen et al, 2010)

Behavioural Approach of theNurture Theory

Introduction

The theory of nurture suggests that humanbehaviour is not innate but is learned. It involves aspects of human life thatsurround societal reasons for why aggression is demonstrated. The NationalCentre of Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN) estimated that approximately 23 per1,000 children are victims of maltreatment, including physical abuse, sexualabuse, and neglect (Sedlack &Broadhurst, 1996), as described by Margolinand Gordis (2004). Margolin and Gordis studied the psychological development ofchildren exposed to violence in the family and community. They concluded thatchildren who are in a damaged and abusive environment are more likely to becomeaggressive and become low achievers in their schools and communities.Therefore, family factors, peer influences and cognitive factors seem tocontribute to the control and development of aggression (Sarah McCawley 2001).Bandura (1961), Rayner et al and Heusmann et al (1986) are theorists that havegathered supporting evidence to suggest aggressive behaviour is learned byobserving others.

The following sections will describe thebehavioural approach of the Nurture theory, by looking at the Social LearningTheory and The Script Theory.

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Albert Bandura was a psychologist whodeveloped the Social Learning Theory (SLT). He believed that "most humanbehaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing othersone forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasionsthis coded information serves as a guide for action (1977)." (Law et al,Psychology, IB Diploma)

The theory assumes that individuals do notinherit behavioural tendencies, but learn by observing models, such as theirpeers and parents, and imitating their behaviour. In other words, individualslearn behaviour vicariously. In order to verify his Social Learning Theory,Bandura et al (1961) conducted a laboratory experiment to investigate if socialbehaviours, for example, aggression, can be acquired by imitation.

To support his theory, Bandura and his teamshowed young children, aged 3 to 6 years, a video of an adult model behavingaggressively towards an inflatable Bobo doll. He wanted to see if the childrenwould imitate this behaviour. The children showed directly imitative behaviour,especially when the adult was rewarded (Law et al, Psychology, IB Diploma).This empirical study supported Bandura's theory as it showed that behaviour isthe result of learning. However, it is difficult to conclude whether the childhas learned the behaviour because of demand characteristics, as the child mayhave only imitated the behaviour in order to be acknowledged as they were beingobserved. However, it can be argued by those supporters of the nature theory,nativists, that without inherited characteristics, the act of learning wouldnot be possible.

Nevertheless, Bandura's study has intriguedand inspired much research, such as Heusmann et al (1986) and Anderson et al(2001). These researchers investigated if exposure to media violence causedlong-term effects and a longitudinal Meta analysis of the exposure to mediaviolence respectively.

·Even though studies have shown that genetics can influenceaggression, there are limiting factors. Aggression is more second nature topeople than an uncontrollable outburst and is likely to be used as aself-defence mechanism. Situational factors are also significant, in attemptingto explain how much discomfort was caused that resulted in the aggressivebehaviour.

·At the other end of the spectrum is Nurture. Those who adoptnurture as an idea, empiricists or environmentalists, presume that at birth,the human mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa), and this is constantly filled asa result of experience (i.e. behaviourism). In other words, the behaviour islearned and not innate.

OTHERS EXAMPLES ARE:

Intelligence

When someone achieves greatness thanks to an innovation or otherbreakthrough, it is usually agreed that the individual has a high level ofintelligence. Often, when exploring the background of the individual, theinfluences of nature versus nurture are questioned.

· Nature - Those who would arguethat nature is largely to thank for the individual’s ability to achievegreatness might point to his or her parents and use their level of intelligenceas a reason for why he or she is so successful. Perhaps the child developedearly skills quickly and this would be used to show that the child was clearly,“born smart.”

· Nurture - Those who would arguethat a child's intelligence was affected by nurture would look at the child'seducational background as well as how his or her parents raised her. Theseindividuals would state that the intelligence level which permitted the childto be so successful, is largely the result of the child's upbringing and theschool system.

Personality

The development of personality traits is often part of the natureversus nurture debate. People want to know how children develop theirpersonalities.

· Influence of the parents -Often it is easy to see similarities between a child’s personality and one orboth of her parents’ personalities. In this situation, it would seem that thechild's personality has developed largely from the influence of theparents.

· Effects of nature - In somesituations, children develop personalities, or tendencies toward certainbehaviors, such as shyness or aggression, that can’t seem to be explainedbecause neither parent demonstrates the same trait. In this situation, it canbe argued that nature is at play in the development of the child's personality.

hom*osexuality

The debate about hom*osexuality and whether the genesis of which isthe result of nature or nurture has spanned throughout history, but has takenon even greater importance in more recent years as the rights of theseindividuals are being hotly debated throughout the world.

· Effects of environment - Someindividuals believe that hom*osexuality is a choice. Others believe that it isthe result of something having negatively affected an individual, such assexual assault, causing the individual to become hom*osexual. These debatesfocus on the influence of nurture and the individuals feel that environmentalfactors are the cause of one’s hom*osexuality.

· Biological factor - Otherindividuals believe that hom*osexuality is a biological factor, no more a choicethan eye color or foot size. These individuals are debating from theperspective of nature being responsible for the development of theindividual.

These examples show several ways that the nature vs. nurture debate plays outin real life.

1.4Domains of development; Physical,social, emotional, cognitive, moral and language

Physical development

It is important to know how children develop physically becausephysical development influences children’s behaviour directly by determiningwhat they can do and indirectly their attitudes towards self and others.Physical development involves changes in body size and body proportions whichis measured in terms of height and weight. The physical development involvesgrowth of bones, fat muscle, teeth, puberty changes of primary and secondarycharacteristics and neurological development.

Cognitive development

Cognition refers to the mental activities involved in acquisition,processing, organization, storage and use of information. These activitiesinclude perceiving, imagining, reasoning and judging. A single and globalmeasure of an individual’s general level of cognitive development is calledintelligence. The neuron patterns in the brain are the determining factors ofintellectual development. Mental growth is the process of organization ofbehaviour patterning which brings the individual to a stage of psychologicalmaturity.

The observational studies on children’s intellectual developmentby Jean Piaget, (1896-1980) a Swiss psychologist, is considered as an importantlandmark in this area. Piaget’s theory covers the entire range of ages frominfancy through adolescence.

Socio-emotional development

Social and Emotional refers to your child's ability to make andmaintain relationships.

Every child is born with potentialitiesfor both pleasant and unpleasant emotions. Even infants have the abilityto respond emotionally. The first sign of emotional behaviour in the new borninfant's 'general excitement' due to intense stimulation. However, theemotional status of the infant in the next few months is not very clear-cut andappears to be diffused. With age, emotional responses become less diffused andrandom. For example, at first, the child expresses displeasure byscreaming/crying but later his reactions include resisting, throwing objects,stiffening of the body etc. As the child becomes older linguistic responsesincrease and child's motor responses decrease especially in fear and anger.

Social development refers to development of the ability to behavein accordance with social expectations, which involve social perception,thinking and reasoning about people, one self and social relationship. Theseare called "Social Cognition'. The process of learning the standards ofbehaviors, roles and values in a given culture is called 'Socialization'.Socialization is largely determined by child's cognitive development as well associal stimulation available to the child.

Moral development

The independence that comes with adolescencerequires independent thinking as well as the development ofmorality—standardsof behavior that are generally agreed on within a culture to be right or proper.Just as Piaget believed that children’s cognitive development follows specificpatterns, Lawrence Kohlberg (1984)argued that children learn their moralvalues through active thinking and reasoning, and that moral developmentfollows a series of stages.

It involves an individual’s growing ability to distinguish rightfrom wrong and to act in accordance with those distinctions.

Language development

Language involves receptive and expressive forms when receptivelanguage ability is limited expressive language development is affected. Speechis only one form of expressive language. It is the most useful and most widelyused form in expressing our thoughts and feelings. If speech is to be anuseful form of communication, the speaker must use words used by others.

1.5Developmental milestonesand identifying deviations and giftedness

Developmentalmilestones are behaviors or physical skills seen in infants and children asthey grow and develop. Rolling over, crawling, walking, and talking are allconsidered milestones. The milestones are different for each age range.

Thereis a normal range in which a child may reach each milestone. For example,walking may begin as early as 8 months in some children. Others walk as late as18 months and it is still considered normal.

Oneof the reasons for well-child visits to the health care provider in the earlyyears is to follow your child's development. Most parents also watch fordifferent milestones. Talk to your child's provider if you have concerns aboutyour child's development.

Closelywatching a "checklist" or calendar of developmental milestones maytrouble parents if their child is not developing normally. At the same time,milestones can help to identify a child who needs a more detailed check-up.Research has shown that the sooner the developmental services are started, thebetter the outcome. Examples of developmental services include: speech therapy,physical therapy, and developmental preschool.

Belowis a general list of some of the things you might see children doing atdifferent ages. These are NOT precise guidelines. There are many differentnormal paces and patterns of development.

Infant-- birth to 1 year

• Able to drink from a cup
• Able to sit alone, without support
• Babbles
• Displays social smile
• Gets first tooth
• Plays peek-a-boo
• Pulls self to standing position
• Rolls over by self
• Says mama and dada, using terms appropriately
• Understands "NO" and will stop activity in response
• Walks while holding on to furniture or other support

Toddler-- 1 to 3 years

• Able to feed self neatly, with minimal spilling
• Able to draw a line (when shown one)
• Able to run, pivot, and walk backwards
• Able to say first and last name
• Able to walk up and down stairs
• Begins pedaling tricycle
• Can name pictures of common objects and point to body parts
• Dresses self with only a little bit of help
• Imitates speech of others, "echoes" word back
• Learns to share toys (without adult direction)
• Learns to take turns (if directed) while playing with other children
• Masters walking
• Recognizes and labels colors appropriately
• Recognizes differences between males and females
• Uses more words and understands simple commands
• Uses spoon to feed self

Preschooler-- 3 to 6 years

• Able to draw a circle and square
• Able to draw stick figures with two to three features for people
• Able to skip
• Balances better, may begin to ride a bicycle
• Begins to recognize written words, reading skills start
• Catches a bounced ball
• Enjoys doing most things independently, without help
• Enjoys rhymes and word play
• Hops on one foot
• Rides tricycle well
• Starts school
• Understands size concepts
• Understands time concepts

School-agechild -- 6 to 12 years

• Begins gaining skills for team sports such as soccer, T-ball, or other team sports
• Begins to lose "baby" teeth and get permanent teeth
• Girls begin to show growth of armpit and pubic hair, breast development
• Menarche (first menstrual period) may occur in girls
• Peer recognition begins to become important
• Reading skills develop further
• Routines important for daytime activities
• Understands and is able to follow several directions in a row

Adolescent-- 12 to 18 years

• Adult height, weight, sexual maturity
• Boys show growth of armpit, chest, and pubic hair; voice changes; and testicl*s/penis enlarge
• Girls show growth of armpit and pubic hair; breasts develop; menstrual periods start
• Peer acceptance and recognition is of vital importance
• Understands abstract concepts

Milestones at 6 Months

• Social/Emotional- Responds to other people’s emotions and often seems happy
• Language/Communication- Begins to say consonant sounds (jabbering with “m,” “b”)
• Cognitive- Begins to pass things from one hand to the other
• Movement/Physical- Begins to sit without support

Milestones at 9 Months

• Social/Emotional- Clingy with familiar adults; has favorite toy
• Language/Communication- Copies gestures; makes a lot of different sounds like “mamama” and “babababa”
• Cognitive- Plays peek-a-boo
• Movement/Physical- Pulls to stand; crawls

Milestones at 12 Months

• Social/Emotional- Repeats sounds or actions to get attention; is shy or nervous with strangers
• Language/Communication- Says “mama and “dada;" makes sounds with changes in tone
• Cognitive- Follows simple directions
• Movement/Physical- May stand alone

Milestones at 18 Months

• Social/Emotional- Plays simple pretend; explores with parent nearby
• Language/Communication- Points to things in a book; says several single words
• Cognitive- Know how ordinary things are used; scribbles
• Movement/Physical- Walks; eats with a spoon

Milestones at 2 Years

• Social/Emotional- Plays mainly beside other children; copies others
• Language/Communication- Uses 2-4 word sentences; knows names of body parts
• Cognitive- Plays simple make-believe; can follow a 2-step instruction
• Movement/Physical- Kicks a ball; copies straight lines and circles

Milestones at 3 Years

• Social/Emotional- Copies adults and friends
• Language/Communication- Talks well enough for strangers to understand most of the time
• Cognitive- Does puzzles with 3 or 4 pieces
• Movement/Physical- Runs easily

Developmental deviation occurs when a child acquires developmentalmilestones in a nonsequential fashion; children with developmental deviationacquire higher-level developmental milestones within a developmental streambefore acquiring lower-level developmental milestones within that stream. Thus,developmental deviation is defined by development or behavior that is atypicalat any age. Once the developmental history has been completed, aneurodevelopmental examination, which includes a traditional neurologicexamination and an extended developmental evaluation, is performed. In mostcases, the neurodevelopmental examination should confirm findings from thedevelopmental history, increasing the validity of the developmental conclusionsdrawn from this pediatric neurodevelopmental assessment process. Once thepediatric neurodevelopmental assessment has been completed, specificdevelopmental-behavioral diagnoses can be made.

A common misconception aboutgiftedchildrenis that their giftedness does not become apparent until afterthey start school. Gifted traits can,potentiallyberecognized in toddlers and even babies if you know the signs.

They mayinclude exaggerated characteristics like:

• Constant stimulation-seeking while awake
• Earlier ability to mimic sounds than other babies
• Extreme alertness or always looking around
• Hypersensitivity to sounds, smells, textures, and tastes as well as an unusually vigorous reaction to unpleasant ones (characteristic of theDabrowski's supersensitivities)
• Lower sleep needs than other babies

While ababy does not need to have all of these traits, most gifted children willdisplay more than one.

It'simportant to note that research on gifted infants is quite limited. While thesesigns may suggest giftedness in childhood, they are not definitive indicatorsthat your child will be gifted if they display these traits.If you seemto have a precious baby,encourage their brain developmentand watchfor signs of giftedness as they continue to grow.

Assessingatypical behavior

Recognizingatypical behavior includes the following steps:

· Identify skill levels thatindicate that a child’s development is atypical – either advanced or delayed –in comparison to the average child of the same age.

· Assess whether patterns ofbehavior are reflections of a child’s personality, are culturally influenced,or if they indicate an area of concern.

· Record the age at which skillsemerge, sequence of skills, and quality of skill level as well as how theycontribute to a child’s ability to function. Make a note of dates and times ofoccurrences to identify patterns, duration and frequency of behavior, types ofactivities, setting, interactions with peers, or other influences.

· Share collected information andconcerns with parents and ask them to contribute any observations or insightsthey may have about the behavior.

· Adapt the learning program orenvironment to support the child’s strengths and weaknesses while providingexternal resources or ideas that may help parents.

Earlychild care providers essentially act as the parents’ partners in facilitatingthe developmental growth and future success of each child in their care. Due tothe number of time providers spend with each child and their specializedknowledge relating to appropriate milestones, child care providers are valuableresources in recognizing and identifying potential areas that may requireadditional support. Early intervention can make a monumental difference in achild’s developmental progress; the involvement and concern of a skilledcaregiver can have a positive impact that will last a lifetime.